, 2013b). Therefore, development of plethysmography, diaphragmatic EMG,

and optogenetic procedures Buparlisib solubility dmso reveals that WNV-infected mice die from respiratory insufficiency due to neurological deficits, and that therapeutic intervention strategies should target these deficits. Experimental procedures have been developed to monitor autonomic dysfunction in WNV-infected rodents (Wang et al., 2011), since human clinical studies and case reports have identified certain signs and symptoms that are reflective of autonomic dysfunctions. Heart rate variability (HRV) has been used as a well-accepted and widely-used indicator of autonomic function in human patients and in rodents (Heart rate variability, 1996). Parasympathetic autonomic function affects heart rate by cardiopulmonary coupling, which is the neurological connectivity that causes the heart rate to increase during respiratory inspiration and causes it

to decrease during expiration. This physiological event is referred to as respiratory sinus arrhythmia (Grossman and Taylor, 2007), and it results in more efficient cardiopulmonary function. Therefore, higher HRV is an indicator of healthy autonomic parasympathetic function. Conversely, reduced HRV is an indicator of unhealthy parasympathetic function. The HRV is monitored in rodents infected with WNV using radiotelemetry chips (Wang et al., 2011). A midline dorsal incision is made along click here the spine, and a subcutaneous pocket is made to house the telemetric device. Two recording-leads subcutaneously tunneled toward the left and right clavicular regions are sutured to the pectoral muscles. Telemetry receivers on platforms under the cages are used

to collect data for calculating the frequency and time domains, which are mathematical computations used to identify HRV. The frequency domain Obatoclax Mesylate (GX15-070) is analyzed with the power spectral densities of the heartbeats based on the fast Fourier transform. The time domains are based on the time of each beat between the ECG R peaks. From these data the mean R–R interval, and standard deviation of normal R–R intervals are calculated for each animal. During the development of WNND, the HRV is progressively reduced in hamsters, which suggests that WNV infection causes autonomic dysfunction in hamsters and possibly in infected people. It is currently not known at this time, however, the locations of neurological lesions that contribute to this autonomic dysfunction. Observations of similar radiotelemetry studies indicate that mice do not develop reduced HRV despite the development of fatal WNND, and that autonomic dysfunction is not the physiological cause of death (Wang et al., 2013b), whereas as discussed previously, respiratory insufficiency from lesions directly affecting respiratory function is likely the physiological cause of death.