An enhanced focus throughout the field on individual differences in response to stress and inclusion of resilient animals as research subjects is necessary, particularly in regard to studies of the immune system, where study of stress-resilient subjects has been minimal. Further interrogation of the mechanisms of what we’ve termed “passive” resilience will also be helpful. As described in this review, the adaptive failure of resilient animals to display the pathological markers seen in susceptible animals is often accomplished by active mechanisms. An enhanced CB-839 manufacturer focus on resilient subjects may enable us to harness mechanisms of resilience in the body and brain

for the successful treatment of stress-related disorders. This research was supported by US National Institute of Mental Health grants R01 MH090264 BGB324 nmr (SJR), R01 MH104559 (SJR), R21 MH099562 (SJR) F31 MH105217 (MLP), T32 MH087004 (MLP) and T32 MH096678 (MLP) and Janssen/IMHRO Rising Star Award (SJR). “
“Early life perturbations such as stress, inflammation, or infection produce long-term effects on the developing brain, increasing subsequent

risk of neuropsychiatric disorders throughout life. Despite advances in understanding the mechanistic roles of the maternal milieu in normal and pathological neurodevelopment, significant progress in biomarker discovery and the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders has not been made. This is in part due to the multifactorial presentation of neuropsychiatric conditions and common comorbidities, including chronic gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction. As a growing body of evidence suggests that a critical window for neurodevelopment overlaps with microbial colonization of the gastrointestinal tract, it is likely that environmental perturbations could similarly impact both systems (Borre Tryptophan synthase et al., 2014 and Stilling et al., 2014). In particular, maternal stress during pregnancy has been associated with an increased incidence of neurodevelopmental

disorders and gastrointestinal dysfunction (Chrousos, 2009, Mawdsley and Rampton, 2006 and O’Mahony et al., 2009). Among the many maladaptive effects it exhibits on the mother, chronic stress during pregnancy alters vaginal host immunity and resident bacteria composition (Culhane et al., 2001, Wadhwa et al., 2001 and Witkin et al., 2007). The vaginal ecosystem is a dynamic community shown to be sensitive to a variety of factors such as body composition, diet, infection, antibiotic treatment and stress (Bennet et al., 2002, Cho et al., 2012, Turnbaugh et al., 2009, Ravel et al., 2011 and Koenig et al., 2011), and is poised to communicate information about the state of the pending external environment. Maternal vaginal microflora is ingested into the neonatal gut during parturition, establishing the initial microbial population.