27% in that work (Beyer et

al., 2007). Further refinements of the visual measurement will be required to verify if FDK can be used as screening to trichothecene levels in Brazil, which remain unclear. In spite of the increasing risk and concern about FHB, monitoring and reporting of the occurrence of Fusarium toxins in commercial wheat grain and by-products in Brazil were limited to a few research studies or non-public industrial quality assessments. Previous studies in the country placed DON as the main target toxin, together with zearalenone, diacetoxyscirpenol, and T-2 toxins ( Calori-Domingues et al., 2007, Furlong et al., 1995 and Malmann et al., 2003). In those, Dinaciclib concentration information

varied from qualitative and quantitative due to a variety of analytical methods which differ in accuracy and detection limits. Interestingly, the mean DON levels (540 μg/kg) found in our survey were within the range of mean concentration levels reported in previous findings for the region. However, our results differed from other surveys because DON was found in all but one sample and was much less prevalent in previous reports. For example, DON levels, Trichostatin A datasheet found in 55% of 38 samples of commercial wheat grain produced in Brazil, ranged from 400 to 590 μg/kg ( Furlong et al., 1995). A large analytical survey conducted between the years 2000 and 2003 showed that approximately 25% of 297 samples of commercial wheat from southern Brazil were contaminated with

DON with mean and maximum levels of 603 and 8504 μg/kg, respectively ( Malmann et al., 2003). Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase A recent analysis of both national and imported wheat grains showed 94% (mean DON = 332 μg/kg), and 88% (mean = 90 μg/kg) of the samples contaminated with DON, respectively. Although in significantly higher levels, only two national samples showed DON levels exceeding 1250 μg/kg ( Calori-Domingues et al., 2007). The apparently higher prevalence of DON in studies conducted in the current decade, including results of this work, may relate partially to the higher risk of FHB epidemics along the years and also to its increasing awareness. In the last decades, FHB epidemics became more frequent likely due to the predominance of no-till cropping and climate decadal variability in the subtropical environment of southern Brazilian growing regions (Del Ponte, Fernandes, Pavan, & Baethgen, 2009). Infection by FHB pathogens is extremely dependent on specific environmental conditions that occur in a relatively narrow susceptible phase of the host development and so a non-homogeneous pattern of epidemic intensity and mycotoxin levels is expected on a regional basis because of different flowering dates, local inocula and weather conditions (McMullen et al., 1997).