2B). Furthermore, analysis of CXCR4 expression at the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels revealed that cells with mesenchymal-like characteristics presented PLX4032 a higher expression of CXCR4, when compared with the more epithelial ones (such as HepG2) (Fig. 2C). Levels of TGFB1 mRNA showed correlation not only with the mesenchymal-like phenotype, but also with CXCR4 levels (Fig. 2D). In agreement with their mesenchymal characteristics and F-actin distribution, the migratory capacity of Hep3B and SNU449 was much higher than that observed in HepG2, analyzed through the xCELLigence technology or in a wound-healing assay (Fig. 2E,F). Interestingly, in mesenchymal-like cells,

such as Hep3B (Fig. 2G) or SNU449 (results not shown), the cells in the migration front showed a strong polarization of CXCR4. The presence of AMD3100, a well-known inhibitor of the CXCR4 receptor, inhibited migration of both Hep3B and SNU449 (Fig. 2F). Furthermore, only cells that showed CXCR4 elevated expression and asymmetrical distribution, such as SNU449, responded to CXCL12 inducing migration, whereas HepG2 cells did not (Supporting Fig. 2). All these results together indicate that autocrine stimulation of the TGF-β pathway in HCC cell lines correlates with activation of the CXCR4/CXCL12 axis, which mediates cell migration. To Selleck INK128 analyze whether the autocrine stimulation of the TGF-β pathway induces CXCR4 expression and/or its asymmetric distribution, we stably

silenced TGFBR1 expression with specific shRNA in Hep3B 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 (Fig. 3A) and PLC-PRF5 cells (Supporting Fig. 3). Increase in E-cadherin, which presented a pericellular distribution, and decrease in vimentin expression were observed in TGFBR1-silenced Hep3B cells (Fig. 3B,C, left). Cytoskeleton organization changed in the absence of TGFBR1 expression, showing a more pericellular distribution and fewer stress fibers (Fig. 3C,D). CXCR4 expression was inhibited in these cells (Fig. 3B,C, right, and D), which correlated with a significantly lower capacity to migrate (Fig. 3E). Silencing of TGFBR1 also correlated with reorganization of cytoskeleton and attenuation

of CXCR4 expression and asymmetric distribution in PLC/PRF/5 cells (Supporting Fig. 3). A pharmacological inhibitor of the kinase activity of TGFBR1, LY36497, which attenuated SMAD2 phosphorylation in HCC cells both in the absence or presence of TGF-β (Supporting Fig. 4), decreased CXCR4 levels (Fig. 4A), increased E-cadherin (CDH1) mRNA levels (although changes were more moderate and less significant than the TGFBR1 silencing: Supporting Fig. 4), reorganized the cytoskeleton and decreased the percentage of cells with an asymmetric distribution of CXCR4 (Fig. 4B). Interestingly, treatment with LY36497 inhibited the capacity of cells to close the wound in migration experiments (Fig. 4C). In summary, TGF-β signaling is responsible for up-regulation and asymmetric distribution of CXCR4 in HCC cells.