White pine and hemlock were harvested for lumber and bark for use in the tanning of hides, with the small town of Lehigh Tannery boasting the 2nd largest tannery in the United States (Pennsylvania DCNR, 2010). In 1875 AD a fire swept through the Lehigh Gorge destroying remaining timber, lumber stockpiles, and sawmills (Pennsylvania DCNR, 2010). These observations combined with flood histories and the history of coal mining in the area suggests that the coal sand/silt deposit dates >1820 AD. The Oberly Island Site (36Nm140) is located 68 km downstream from the Nesquehoning Creek Site along the lower

Lehigh River valley. Oberly is a man-made island resulting from Gemcitabine cell line artificial Lehigh Canal construction during the 1820s (Fig. 2B). The Oberly Island archeological site on the island was recorded on an alluvial terrace composed of a >3.5 m-thick sequence

of vertical-accretion deposits that have accumulated since the early Holocene, possibly as early as the late Pleistocene (Basalik and Lewis, 1989, Siegel et al., 1999 and Wagner, 1996) (Fig. 4). Prehistoric artifacts occur within the lower strata, which are commonly weathered CH5424802 in vivo into Bt horizons. The upper Bt horizon contains Late to Terminal Archaic artifacts, placing the age of these deposits somewhere between 3000 and 1000 BC. Overlying the moderately developed buried alluvial soils are historic alluvial deposits, including a 1- to 1.2-m-thick coal sand layer and the upper of two plowzone (Ap) horizons. The thick, >1 m, succession of coal sand and silt toward the surface conforms to the NRCS survey classification of Oberly Island before surface soils as Fluvaquents (Soil Survey Staff, 2012a and Soil Survey Staff, 2012b). This thick succession of coal alluvium likely occurs across much of the island. Proximal to the island, Gibraltar series (Gb) soils (Mollic Udifluvents) are forming along many of the floodplain and alluvial terrace landforms (Fig. 2B). The Mollic characteristics of the Gb are attributed

to the black coal deposits that comprise the topsoil. Siegel et al. (1999) documents two potential coal depositional events that occurred around 1841 AD at the archeological site. Because we have no evidence of prehistoric Americans plowing, the consistent presence of a plowed buried A horizon (Apb) suggests historic disturbance prior to the deposition of any coal sand. The lack of time diagnostic artifacts recovered from the “coalwash” and buried plowzone at Oberly Island prevents precise dating of the coalwash deposits. It is presumed to have occurred after the 1820s and the completion of the portion of the Lehigh Canal that created Oberly Island, and tentatively is linked to a major historic flood dating to 1841 AD (e.g., Siegel et al., 1999:38). Barbadoes Island is located along the lower Schuylkill River, 35 km upstream from the confluence with the Delaware River at Philadelphia, PA.