Because of their high

resistance to physical and chemical factors, spores of the genus Bacillus are also considered excellent vehicles for delivering vaccines and drugs (Ricca & Cutting, 2003) as well as important tools to explore interplanetary life (reviewed in Nicholson, 2009). Dormant spores of Bacillus species have several mechanisms to minimize DNA damage induced by physical and chemical factors (reviewed in Nicholson et al., 2000 & Setlow, 2006; Moeller et al., 2007). Therefore, there is continued applied interest in the mechanisms of spore resistance, and one essential spore component that must be resistant is DNA. Bacillus subtilis spores saturate their DNA with α/β-type small, acid-soluble spore proteins Selleckchem LDK378 (SASP) to protect it from many types of damage, and spores lacking most of these proteins (α−β− spores) are more sensitive than wild-type spores to heat, UV radiation and many genotoxic chemicals (reviewed in Setlow, 2006, 2007). However, despite this protective mechanism, spores may accumulate potentially lethal and/or mutagenic DNA damage, including strand breaks and apurinic–apyrimidinic (AP) sites (reviewed in Setlow, 2006; Moeller et al., 2007). AP lesions are processed by AP

endonucleases, important components of the base excision repair (BER) pathway. Bacillus subtilis has two AP endonucleases, Nfo and ExoA, and these enzymes repair DNA damage accumulated by dormant and germinating/outgrowing spores (Shida et al., 1999; Salas-Pacheco et al., 2003, 2005; Ibarra et al., 2008). As a consequence, these enzymes are important in the resistance of wild-type spores to dry heat, and of α−β− spores to both wet and Selleckchem NVP-AUY922 dry heat (Salas-Pacheco et al., 2005), treatments that have been suggested to kill these spores by generation of AP sites

in DNA (reviewed in Setlow, 2006). To further assess the importance of Nfo in the resistance of wild-type and α−β− spores to various treatments, we have examined whether Nfo overexpression in spores increases spore resistance to wet and dry heat and UV radiation. Alectinib solubility dmso The plasmids and B. subtilis strains used in this work are listed in Table 1. All B. subtilis strains are isogenic with and derived from a laboratory 168 strain, PS832. Spores were prepared, purified and stored as described previously (Nicholson & Setlow, 1990). A 1070-bp fragment containing nfo was released from pPERM585 by digestion with BamHI and ligated into the BamHI site downstream of the strong forespore-specific sspB promoter (PsspB) present in pPERM615 (Table 1). This construct, termed pPERM632, was cloned in Escherichia coli DH5α and the correct orientation of the PsspB-nfo cassette was confirmed by restriction analysis and PCR (data not shown). Plasmid pPERM632 was used to transform B. subtilis strains PERM450 and PS832 to CmR by a double-crossover event at the amyE locus, yielding strains PERM641 and PERM869, respectively (Table 1).