Histologically, early lesions of BOS demonstrate submucosal lymphocytic inflammation and disruption of the epithelium of small airways, followed by a buildup of granulation tissue in the airway lumen, resulting in partial obstruction. Subsequently, granulation tissue organizes in a cicatricial pattern with resultant fibrosis and eventually completely obliterates the airway lumen [23]. It is difficult to define the distinct stages of OB development, but each stage has different main pathological features. Our results demonstrate that orthotopic

tracheal allografts were partially obstructed, in which the mucosa underwent Tofacitinib denudation and squamous metaplasia as well as re-epithelization to various degrees, while the submucosa had few myofibroblasts but rising number of inflammatory cells. On the other hand, Torin 1 heterotopic allografts were completely occluded within 4 weeks after transplant, in which the trachea had barely epithelium but abundant inflammatory cells and myofibroblasts. Therefore, pathological changes found in orthotopic and heterotopic allografts are respectively similar to those in different stages of BOS development in patients who received lung transplant. Both orthotopic

and heterotopic tracheal grafts are nonvascularized grafts, and there is no supply of blood to the grafts other than from angiogenesis, which is passively derived from surrounding tissue during the course of wound healing after transplantation. Although our study confirmed that the angiogenesis ability among various transplant sites was different, all the orthotopic syngeneic grafts basically retained normal histological structures. We speculate that transplant site would not be a major factor affecting the development of OB. In lung transplanted patients, OB is preceded by a decrease in microvascular supply to the small airways. This ischemic event may lead to airway damage or increase the tendency buy CHIR-99021 of scar tissue formation as a repair mechanism. The small airways then appear to respond to this insult by angiogenesis [24] and [25]. Compared with orthotopic

allografts, heterotopic allografts formed lesions with less neovascularized vessels but more fibrous tissues like those in the more mature stage of scar formation. Hence, pathological changes in orthotopic and heterotopic allografts may represent the different stages of OB development: those of orthotopic allografts exhibit the early stage of OB development while heterotopic allografts exhibit the advanced stage, but the general trend of lesion development was identical. 20 years after the implementation of the first OB research model [7], the question is “what is the ideal model of OB.” First, this model is time and cost saving: it is not practical to spend over months waiting for the development of OB lesions, while some models are limited in their high cost and availability.