1a, b and c, respectively). These pellets formed aggregates that surrounded ciliates. We exposed three types of L. pneumophila suspensions to gentamicin: SPFs grown in vitro and MIFs released from pellets aged for 7 days, or aged for 90 days in Osterhout’s buffer (Fig. 2). SPFs seemed to be highly sensitive to gentamicin as no culturable bacteria were detected after antibiotic treatment. On the other hand, a reduction of only 2 logs in the number of CFU (equivalent to approximately 1% survival) was observed

for MIFs released from pellets that were exposed to the antibiotic. Even MIFs released from pellets kept for 90 days in the low nutrient buffer showed survivors after the gentamicin treatment. Our results Wnt antagonist show that passage through T. tropicalis increased the resistance of L. pneumophila against gentamicin. Long-term Legionella survival in low nutrient medium was estimated for L. pneumophila SPFs and for MIFs still contained in T. tropicalis-produced pellets (Fig. 3). Between 0 and 11 days of incubation, survival curves exhibited a similar reduction in CFU mL−1 (about www.selleckchem.com/products/crenolanib-cp-868596.html 2.5 logs) for the two cell types. However, after this period, survival curves showed strongly different behaviours. Culturability of SPFs sharply decreased until no more culturable bacteria were detected after 90 days of incubation. For MIFs in pellets, only a slight decline (about 0.5 log) was observed

between 11 and 50 days of incubation. After this period, the population seemed to remain stable

(at c. 5 × 104 CFU mL−1) for up to 4 months of incubation. We infected human pneumocytes (A549) with L. pneumophila SPFs and with bacteria released from pellets kept for 90 days in Osterhout’s buffer. Our protocol was not designed to differentiate uptake efficiency, survival or replication of Legionella in human pneumocytes; it provides an overview of the cell infection. Regardless of the inoculum density used to infect the pneumocytes (102, 103 or 104 mL−1), significantly higher yields were always obtained from L. pneumophila MIFs released from pellets (confirmed Olopatadine by statistical analysis) than from SPFs (Fig. 4). The factors that determine Legionella survival in the environment, as well as the molecular mechanisms involved, are not well understood at present. However, in recent years experimental evidence has indicated that the differentiation of L. pneumophila from replicative forms into transmittable forms (SPFs in vitro, and MIFs in vivo) is associated with the expression of genes encoding factors required for environmental fitness and virulence (Molofsky & Swanson, 2004; Bruggemann et al., 2006; Garduno et al., 2008). Unlike SPFs, MIFs do not develop in vitro. MIFs appear as short rods with thick laminar outer membrane and cytoplasm containing numerous inclusions of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate.

To determine whether high

yield of azinomycin B is associated with aziU3 expression levels, real-time PCR was performed on total RNAs isolated from mycelia harvested at two different time points from the wild-type and mutant strains (Fig. 4b). In the early growth phase (up to 36 h), aziU3 expression levels were unusually lower in ΔaziU3::aziU3 and WT::aziU3 than the wild type. However, by 48 h, the levels equalled and even exceeded expression in wild type by 24% and 67%, respectively. This was also validated in the bioassay (Fig. 4a) that showed activity of azinomycin B by 36 h in the wild-type strain but not in ΔaziU3::aziU3 and WT::aziU3. At 48 h, all strains reached peak production, and azinomycin B production in two mutant strains was apparently higher than the wild type. HPLC detection (Fig. 3) proved that ΔaziU3::aziU3 and WT::aziU3 respectively produced approximately find more 24% and 77% more azinomycin B than the wild type at 48 h. These results suggest that aziU3 expression levels result in an increase in azinomycin B production. Foreign DNA can be introduced into streptomycetes by multiple ways including transformation, transfection, phage transduction, electroporation and intergeneric

conjugation (Kieser et al., 2000). Transformation and transfection are the widely used methods for genetic manipulation in Streptomyces, but these procedures exclusively need to develop practical protocols for protoplast formation and regeneration in different

strains. By optimizing conditions for mycelial growth, protoplast formation DAPT clinical trial and regeneration, we established the protoplast transformation system for S. sahachiroi and successfully demonstrated its general use by introducing plasmid DNA into 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl the bacterial strain. DNA isolated from different strains such as the methylation defective host (E. coli ET12567) or the methylation proficient host (E. coli S17-1) had no effect on transformation efficiencies, suggesting that S. sahachiroi has no methyl-specific restriction system, which is consistent with the result obtained from conjugation experiments. Sequencing analysis of the azi cluster revealed that three unknown genes (aziU1, aziU2 and aziU3) share overlapping start and stop codons successively and are supposed to be translationally linked to each other. Using the genetic manipulation systems developed through in-fame deletion and complementation experiments, we have demonstrated that these three genes are essential for azinomycin B biosynthesis. However, only overexpression of aziU3 significantly improved the azinomycin B production (Shan Wang & Jing He, unpublished). blastp analysis revealed that AziU3 contains the conserved domain of BtrH (pfam14399), which is often found around the gene coding for NRPSs or fused to it.

The cell densities were adjusted to 1.0 units of optical density at 620 nm (OD620 nm) and used to determine the CSH by the CRB and SAT assays. The curli-producing E. coli

MC4 100 strain, grown on blood agar at 37 °C for 24 h, was used as a reference strain for CSH using CRB assay. AZD5363 supplier L. crispatus LMG12005a Pregnant woman, vagina L. crispatus LMG 12003 L. crispatus LMG 18199 L. gasseri LMG 9203 Unknown human source L. gasseri LMG 13134 L. gasseri LMG 18177 L. johnsonii LMG 18175 Human unknown source L. rhamnosus LMG 18243a (LGG) L. rhamnosus LMG 23534 Healthy human (adult), faeces L. gasseri CCUG 44034 L. johnsonii CCUG 44519 L. reuteri DSM 20016 L. reuteri DSM 17983 Healthy human (adult), faeces E. coli MC4 100 30 °C Lineage of E. coli K-12 E. coli MC4 100 37 °C The CSH was also determined by SAT as previously described (Lindahl et al., 1981). A 10-μL aliquot of a fresh cell suspension in PBS was mixed on a glass-slide with 10 μL of ammonium find more sulphate (pH 6.8) of various molarities (0.02, 0.2, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 and 4 M). The formation of cell aggregates was observed

after 1 min by visual reading. The molarity at which the cells caused aggregation was recorded as a positive result. CR binding was performed using CR-MRS agar (MRS with 0.01% CR, which was autoclaved separately). Washed agar- and broth-cultured cells were plated on CR-MRS agar and all plates were incubated at 37 °C for 72 h. CR-bound cells produced intense red colonies and non-CRB cells produced

colourless colonies on CR-MRS agar (Qadri et al., 1988). A quantitative CRB assay was performed as described by Qadri et al. (1988) with slight modifications for the broth- and agar-cultured cells grown at 30 and 37 °C. MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit Briefly, washed cell suspensions were adjusted to 1.0 units of OD620 nm and incubated with 100 μg mL−1 of CR in PBS in a total assay volume of 1 mL and incubated at 37 °C for 10 min and centrifuged at 9000 g for 30 min. The amount of dye remaining in the supernatant was quantified by measuring absorbance at OD480 nm. The concentration of CR in the supernatants was determined using the CR standard curve. From these data, CR bound by each strain was calculated using the following formula: Results were expressed as per cent CR bound. A high percentage of CR binding implies a high CSH of the strains. Escherichia coli MC4 100 was used as the reference strain for CRB assay. The effect of pH (3–8), ionic strength of the PBS (with/without 0.85% NaCl) and cholesterol (100 μg mL−1) of CRB of lactobacilli was also determined. The effect of proteinase K (100 μg mL−1, pH and pronase E (100 μg mL−1, pH treatment of the cells on CRB was determined by incubating 1.0 units of OD620 nm of the cell suspension with the above enzymes at 37 °C for 1 h. CRB was then determined as mentioned above after inactivating the proteolytic enzymes with 1 mM PMSF.

The cell densities were adjusted to 1.0 units of optical density at 620 nm (OD620 nm) and used to determine the CSH by the CRB and SAT assays. The curli-producing E. coli

MC4 100 strain, grown on blood agar at 37 °C for 24 h, was used as a reference strain for CSH using CRB assay. Thiazovivin nmr L. crispatus LMG12005a Pregnant woman, vagina L. crispatus LMG 12003 L. crispatus LMG 18199 L. gasseri LMG 9203 Unknown human source L. gasseri LMG 13134 L. gasseri LMG 18177 L. johnsonii LMG 18175 Human unknown source L. rhamnosus LMG 18243a (LGG) L. rhamnosus LMG 23534 Healthy human (adult), faeces L. gasseri CCUG 44034 L. johnsonii CCUG 44519 L. reuteri DSM 20016 L. reuteri DSM 17983 Healthy human (adult), faeces E. coli MC4 100 30 °C Lineage of E. coli K-12 E. coli MC4 100 37 °C The CSH was also determined by SAT as previously described (Lindahl et al., 1981). A 10-μL aliquot of a fresh cell suspension in PBS was mixed on a glass-slide with 10 μL of ammonium KU-60019 research buy sulphate (pH 6.8) of various molarities (0.02, 0.2, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 and 4 M). The formation of cell aggregates was observed

after 1 min by visual reading. The molarity at which the cells caused aggregation was recorded as a positive result. CR binding was performed using CR-MRS agar (MRS with 0.01% CR, which was autoclaved separately). Washed agar- and broth-cultured cells were plated on CR-MRS agar and all plates were incubated at 37 °C for 72 h. CR-bound cells produced intense red colonies and non-CRB cells produced

colourless colonies on CR-MRS agar (Qadri et al., 1988). A quantitative CRB assay was performed as described by Qadri et al. (1988) with slight modifications for the broth- and agar-cultured cells grown at 30 and 37 °C. Cobimetinib concentration Briefly, washed cell suspensions were adjusted to 1.0 units of OD620 nm and incubated with 100 μg mL−1 of CR in PBS in a total assay volume of 1 mL and incubated at 37 °C for 10 min and centrifuged at 9000 g for 30 min. The amount of dye remaining in the supernatant was quantified by measuring absorbance at OD480 nm. The concentration of CR in the supernatants was determined using the CR standard curve. From these data, CR bound by each strain was calculated using the following formula: Results were expressed as per cent CR bound. A high percentage of CR binding implies a high CSH of the strains. Escherichia coli MC4 100 was used as the reference strain for CRB assay. The effect of pH (3–8), ionic strength of the PBS (with/without 0.85% NaCl) and cholesterol (100 μg mL−1) of CRB of lactobacilli was also determined. The effect of proteinase K (100 μg mL−1, pH and pronase E (100 μg mL−1, pH treatment of the cells on CRB was determined by incubating 1.0 units of OD620 nm of the cell suspension with the above enzymes at 37 °C for 1 h. CRB was then determined as mentioned above after inactivating the proteolytic enzymes with 1 mM PMSF.

Information about the environmental conditions is processed by various brain centres, in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, that eventually control JAK inhibitors in development the activity of the melanotrope cell regarding hormone production and secretion. The review discusses the roles of these hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic nuclei, their neurochemical messengers acting on the melanotrope, and the external stimuli they mediate to control melanotrope cell functioning. “
“For over a century, the duplex theory has guided our understanding of human sound localization in the horizontal plane.

According to this theory, the auditory system uses interaural time differences (ITDs) and interaural level differences (ILDs) to localize low-frequency and high-frequency sounds,

respectively. Whilst this theory successfully accounts for the localization of tones by humans, some species show very different behaviour. Ferrets are widely used for studying both clinical and fundamental aspects of spatial hearing, but it is not known whether the duplex theory applies to this species or, if so, to what extent the frequency range over which each binaural cue is used depends on acoustical or neurophysiological factors. To address these issues, we trained ferrets to lateralize tones presented over earphones and found that the frequency dependence of ITD and ILD sensitivity broadly paralleled that observed in humans. Bleomycin purchase Compared with humans, however, the transition between ITD

and ILD sensitivity was shifted toward higher frequencies. We found that the frequency dependence of ITD sensitivity in ferrets can partially be accounted for by acoustical factors, although neurophysiological mechanisms are also likely to be involved. Moreover, we show that binaural cue sensitivity can be shaped by experience, as training ferrets on a 1-kHz ILD task resulted in significant improvements in thresholds that were specific to the trained cue and frequency. Our results provide new insights into the 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase factors limiting the use of different sound localization cues and highlight the importance of sensory experience in shaping the underlying neural mechanisms. “
“Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by mental retardation and impaired speech. Because patients with this disorder often exhibit motor tremor and stereotypical behaviors, which are associated with basal ganglia pathology, we hypothesized that AS is accompanied by abnormal functioning of the striatum, the input nucleus of the basal ganglia.

The picture varies in different reports. For clinical descriptions, the data from the international cohort of patients (27 countries), will be used. Clinical manifestations:  Mucous membrane manifestations were oral aphthosis seen in 98.1%, and genital aphthosis in 76.9% of patients. Skin manifestations were seen in 71.9% (pseudofolliculitis

in 53.6% and erythema nodosum in 33.6%). Ocular manifestations were seen in 53.7% (anterior uveitis 38.8%, posterior uveitis 36.9%, retinal vasculitis 23.5%). Selleck Nintedanib Joint manifestations were seen in 50.5% (arthralgia, monoarthritis, oligo/polyarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis). Neurological manifestations were seen in 15.5% of patients (central 11.5%, peripheral 4.4%). Gastrointestinal manifestations were seen in 6.3% of patients. Vascular involvement was seen in 18.2% of patients and arterial involvement in 3% (thrombosis, aneurysm, pulse weakness). Deep vein thrombosis was seen in 8%, large vein thrombosis in 6.5%, and superficial phlebitis in 5.8%. Orchitis and epididymitis were seen in 7.2%. Pathergy test was positive in 49.3%

and HLA-B51 in 49.1% of patients. Diagnosis:  Diagnosis is based on clinical manifestations. The International Criteria for Behcet’s Disease (ICBD) may be helpful. Treatment:  The first line treatment is colchicine Caspase inhibitor (1 mg daily) for mucocutaneous manifestations, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for joint manifestations, anticoagulation for vascular thrombosis, and cytotoxic drugs for ocular and brain manifestations. If incomplete

response or resistance occurs, therapeutic escalation is worthwhile. Conclusion:  Behcet’s disease is a systemic disease characterized by mucocutaneous, ocular, vascular and neurologic manifestations, progressing by attacks and remissions. “
“Background:  Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the most prevalent rheumatic disorders in the Asia-Pacific region. Identification of modifiable risk factors is important for development of strategies for primary and secondary prevention of knee OA. Objective:  Developing a core questionnaire for identification of risk factors of knee OA at the community level. Methods:  Steps performed: (1) item generation from literature, existing knee OA questionnaires and click here patient focus group discussions; (2) development of a preliminary APLAR-COPCORD English questionnaire; (3) translation into target language, back translation and development of a pre-final target language version; (4) adaptation of the pre-final target language version through tests of comprehensibility, content validity, test–retest reliability; and (5) finalization of the English questionnaire. Investigators in Bangladesh, Iran, China, Philippines and Indonesia participated in steps 1 and 2. Subsequent steps were carried out by Bangladeshi and Iranian investigators. Results:  Fifty-three items were generated. Fourteen were obtainable from physical examination and placed in an examination sheet. Two radiological items were not included.

The peak evoked by a paired pulse was thus the result of the summation at cortical level of inhibitory inputs produced by the conditioning pulse and those (excitation + inhibition) produced by the test pulse. In the present study, the conditioning intensity was constant throughout the experiments (and stimulation site was controlled using the NBS system in Protocol 2), but SICI changed according to the test pulse. Summation of inhibitory inputs produced by the conditioning and test pulses seems unlikely because

this would mean that increasing test intensity gave rise to stronger inhibition. The most parsimonious explanation is that cortical excitation increased with test pulse intensity, and the excitatory cortical neurons have different sensitivity to inhibition. Indeed, if these neurons had the same sensitivity to the

conditioning-induced H 89 inhibition (considered to be constant), SICI would have been equal whatever the test peak size. Another explanation would be that the summation of corticospinal inputs of different strengths (due to SICI) could be non-linear at motoneuron level due to its membrane properties (Hultborn et al., 2004). However, this seems unlikely given the linear relationship between TMS intensity and test peak size in PSTHs Alectinib solubility dmso (Devanne et al., 1997). Our results thus suggest a cortical mechanism, and that low-threshold neurons (excitatory interneurons and pyramidal cells) in the neural network mediating TMS-induced corticospinal waves are less sensitive to inhibitory inputs than excitatory neurons with higher threshold. When the test peak was > 30% (the number of stimuli), SICI was less, and it was hardly seen when the peak was > 40%. This could suggest that the cortical neurons with high threshold are not sensitive to SICI, but this seems unlikely because paired pulses depressed MEPs evoked at even higher test pulse intensity (Garry & Thomson, 2009; DNA ligase Lackmy & Marchand-Pauvert,

2010). Increasing TMS intensity strengthened the corticospinal input, giving rise to a large EPSP at spinal level, which can greatly exceed the threshold for motoneuron discharge. SICI evoked at 0.6 RMT was probably not sufficient to depress enough the corticospinal outflow produced by the test pulse at 0.95 RMT. Although the corticospinal volley was depressed by SICI, it was still sufficient to make the motoneuron discharge, and the conditioning peak was not different from the test peak (saturation of the corticospinal input). Therefore, the level of SICI evaluated with the difference between conditioning and test peak was apparently less, but this was due to the PSTH method, which is not sensitive enough to reveal a small depression of large corticospinal EPSPs.

At our Institution, the TDM service was systematically available and there were no economic constraints to its use but, as this study was conducted in clinical practice and the TDM request was left to the judgement of individual clinicians, criteria for using TDM could be heterogeneous. Only patients who took ATV in the evening and who had a mid-dosing

interval (at 12 ± 2 h after drug intake; C12 h) ATV plasma concentration measurement, obtained from records of drug intake and blood sampling time, were included in the analysis. For each patient, we analysed the results of any genotypic resistance test performed before the initiation of ATV-based regimens and we then excluded those patients with genotypic resistance to ATV as defined by the presence of the following mutations: Oligomycin A cell line I50L or three or more substitutions among L10F/I/V, G16E, L33F/I/V, M46I/L, I54L/V/M/T, D60E, I62V, A71I/T/L, V82A/T, I84V, I85V, L90M, and I93L [10,11].

Patients with no genotypic resistance test available were included in the study only if they did not previously experience virological failure, according to the definition below, while taking protease inhibitor-based regimens. Clinical, biochemical and viroimmunological data were recorded for each patient at baseline (time of ATV plasma concentration measurement); plasma HIV RNA levels measured during the follow-up period of 24 weeks were also collected. Patients at the clinical centre gave written informed consent to be included in observational studies. Pirfenidone research buy This Silibinin informed consent was approved by the local institutional Ethics Committee. Virological

response was defined as: (i) HIV RNA<50 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL after 24 weeks in patients with a baseline detectable viral load; (ii) lack of rebound to >50 copies/mL on two consecutive occasions or to >1000 copies/mL on a single occasion during the 24-week follow-up period in patients with a baseline undetectable viral load. For the association between drug level and virological response, when more than one plasma concentration was available for the same patient, we considered separately each sample and evaluated the subsequent 24 weeks for virological response in each instance. In a previous study, such an approach gave similar results to approaches in which the first sample was considered or an average concentration was calculated for each patient (9). Severe toxicity (grade III/IV hyperbilirubinaemia) was defined as the elevation of total bilirubin to>2.6 times the upper limit of normal (>3.1 mg/dL) [12]. Inter-individual and intra-individual pharmacokinetic variabilities of ATV were evaluated using the coefficient of variation (CV), calculated as the quotient of the standard deviation (SD) divided by the mean plasma concentration × 100.

2,4 Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. Once sensitized to an allergen, an asthmatic patient may develop asthma attacks not only when exposed to the specific sensitizing agent but also when exposed to “nonspecific” stimuli, eg, exercise, cold air, and smoke. A sensitizing agent may cause immediate as well as prolonged attacks of asthma, which are associated with a further exacerbation of

airway inflammation. Nonspecific stimuli cause immediate transient asthma attacks, not associated with airway inflammation. Two deaths from acute asthma have been attributed to pyrethrins.5,6 One case report clearly describes an asthmatic reaction provoked by synthetic pyrethroids in an insect control worker.7 Newton and Breslin studied seven find more patients with asthma and a history of chest tightness on exposure to domestic insecticide aerosols, and demonstrated that one patient had a decrease in FEV1 greater than 20% after exposure to a mixture of pyrethrins and pyrethroids.8 A double-blind crossover study of 25 asthmatic subjects with reported sensitivity to insecticide aerosols confirmed that Dabrafenib mouse the insecticide formulation used in the Newton and Breslin study8 caused

adverse effects on lung function and chest, nose, and eye symptoms.9 Two other formulations containing either pyrethrins (administered to a subgroup of 12 subjects) or pyrethroids (administered to a subgroup of 13 subjects) also demonstrated severe adverse effects on airway responsiveness and symptoms when the subgroups were combined. A third formulation, manufactured for sensitive subjects using only “biopyrethroids” did not differ significantly from the negative control. The authors remarked that they were unable to determine whether the mechanism of action was due to an irritant effect of the spray on sensory nerves in the airways or due to an allergic response. Although the passenger’s allergic reactions are common, they have not been historically

correlated with insecticides by cabin crew or airline companies’ medical departments (personal communication with three major airlines). However there are some anecdotal reports of symptoms following aerosol spraying, eg, by flight attendants.10 In their 2005 report about safety of pyrethroids for public health use, the World selleck screening library Health Organization states that in these reports the symptoms are often not typical for pyrethroids and might be attributable to other etiological factors, such as unreported solvents present in the formulation, other pesticides, the microclimatic conditions in the aircraft, or psychological reactions.2 The reported symptoms varied from metallic taste, slight and unspecific irritation of eyes, throat and upper respiratory tract, and skin, to severe respiratory symptoms such as dyspnea, cough, and asthma. Data suggested that the most severe symptoms were observed in sensitized subjects (ie, asthma patients).

After 2 weeks, no growth was observed, no oxide precipitation was noted, and no motile cells were observed under the microscope, regardless of whether or not 0.5 mM acetate was provided as a cosubstrate. Pure cultures previously

grown organotrophically with acetate and nitrate were also incapable of anaerobic GSK3 inhibitor Fe(II) oxidation, lost motility, and did not consume acetate when incubated in a medium containing Fe(II), NO3−, and low concentrations of acetate. We also attempted to culture strain M1 in a liquid culture as described by Emerson & Floyd (2005). Using a medium identical to that in the upper layer in gradient cultures, but lacking agarose, inoculated media under a 1% headspace were fed daily with

small amounts of O2 and Fe2+. In two separate experiments, we observed very little growth (zero to three doublings) when Fe2+ was present vs. controls lacking Fe2+. In all cases, any growth observed was not sustainable in liquid culture and microscopic examination showed that most cells had become nonmotile by the end of the 10–16-day experiment. Although the genus Dechlorospirillum is most associated with perchlorate reduction (Coates, 1999; Bender et al., 2004; Bardiya & Bae, 2008), we have demonstrated that Fe(II) oxidation by strain M1 was clearly linked to an increase in cell numbers. Other recent reports, however, suggest that members of this genus may also be sometimes enriched see more at the redox interface found in gradient-culture systems. Wang et al. (2009) recently described gradient-culture

enrichment of FeOB using various wetland sediments. Although their use of FeS-based gradient cultures yielded Gallionella-related enrichment cultures, community analysis of bacteria in the zone of Fe(II) oxidation was also performed using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). After sequencing of bands excised from DGGE gels and a blast search of the NCBI database, Wang et al. (2009) showed that the closest relatives to two of the sequences, B17 (FJ391522) and B16 (FJ391521), were Magnetospirillum sp. When we compared these sequences (provided by J. Wang) with that of Dechlorospirillum sp. strain M1, we found a 97% sequence similarity. In addition, bacteria morphologically identical ADAMTS5 to strain M1 as depicted in Fig. 1 were commonly observed by J. Wang in gradient-culture enrichments (J. Wang, pers. commun.). Geelhoed et al. (2009) reported the isolation of three spirilla from FeS-gradient-culture microcosms inoculated with freshwater sediment. Strains L70 and LD2 were subsequently isolated using an anaerobic dilution series with lactate as an electron donor and Fe(III) hydroxide as an electron acceptor. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity, strain L70 was found to be 99.2–99.4% related to other Dechlorospirillum isolates and LD2 equally related (97.6–97.