Those who avoid further examination follow the Markov model. The third chance node divides participants who underwent further examination into those who undergo treatment of CKD and those left untreated. We derived these probabilities by initial renal function stratum with

a Delphi survey of the expert committee. Regarding the strata of stage 3 CKD, a cut-off value of eGFR (50 ml/min/1.73 m2) and comorbidity such as hypertension, diabetes and/or hyperlipidaemia are considered in order to depict the difference in clinical practice when recommending start of treatment [17]. We label Wortmannin early stage 3 CKD and advanced stage 3 CKD according to this criterion. Among stage 3 CKD patients, the probability of falling into advanced stage 3 CKD by either eGFR <50 ml/min/1.73 m2 or having comorbidity is 83.5%, calculated from the Japan Tokutei-Kenshin CKD Cohort 2008. Each value is shown in Table 1. All participants follow the Markov model after

their completion of detailed examination. Markov model The Markov model consists of five health states: (1) screened and/or examined, (2) ESRD, (3) heart attack, (4) stroke and (5) death. Transitions between these AZD0156 states are indicated by arrows. Although individuals follow various courses other than these five health states and indicated transitions, we model in this way based on available data and literature. We set the span of staying in each state of the Markov model at 1 year. Annual transition probabilities from (1) screened and/or examined to (2) ESRD with no treatment by the initial renal function stratum are calculated from our database of screened LY2835219 cohort in Okinawa Prefecture [18] for this study, since there is no operational predictive model for progression of CKD to

ESRD such as Tangri et al. [19] in Japan. Each value is shown in Table 1. Reductions of these transition probabilities brought about by treatment of CKD are set at 42.1% based on Omae et al. [20], who investigated the effectiveness of about angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor in improving renal prognosis. This is a unique Japanese evidence of treatment effectiveness evaluating progression to ESRD which can be compared with our Okinawa cohort [18]. The subsequent transition probabilities to (5) death are calculated from the life expectancy of dialysis starters according to a complete count report of Japanese patients on dialysis [21] by sex and age. Each value is shown in Table 1. Transition probabilities from (1) screened and/or examined to (3) heart attack with no treatment are adopted from an epidemiological study in Okinawa by Kimura et al. [22] by initial dipstick test result, age and sex. Each value is shown in Table 1. Reductions of these transition probabilities brought about by treatment of CKD are set at 71.0% based on the Hisayama study by Arima et al. [23]. The subsequent transition probabilities to (5) death are adopted from Kimura et al. [22] by age and sex for the first year, and from Fukiyama et al.

In vitro experiments on cancer cell lines alone cannot predict the in

vivo effect of temperature or adrenaline. Tumor CYT387 supplier tissue penetration is the limiting factor for the activity of the chemotherapeutic agents [29]. It has been hypothesized that the depth of penetration of cisplatin could be increased by hyperthermia through its effects on convection and diffusion in tissues, increasing cell uptake of the drug, tumor blood flow and vascular permeability. Despite the clinical development of HIPEC with platinum compounds, only a few studies have been done in order to establish the basis of this technique. Two contradictory studies have been reported in rat models of peritoneal carcinomatosis [27, 30, 31]. Differences in the hyperthermia technique could explain this discrepancy. Los et al. immersed the whole animal in a thermostatically controlled water bath, resulting in whole-body hyperthermia rather than locoregional hyperthermia [27]. This could have modified both blood concentrations and vascular permeability,

and may explain why plasmatic cisplatin was about 3 times greater at 41°5 than at 38°C and why platinum content was about twice as great in all organs, including the extra-abdominal selleck inhibitor organs such as the lung. Our technique allowed us to heat only the abdominal cavity. Using this method of heating, a 1-hour HIPEC at 42°C did not increase platinum content in the peritoneal tumor nodules or in the peritoneal wall lining. Abdominal hyperthermia was poorly tolerated by the animals; sometimes it was even necessary to stop the procedure

before 60 minutes. This poor tolerance made it impossible to compare the two methods in terms of survival. Our negative results on HIPEC with cisplatin are consistent with those obtained by other authors using similar methods [31, 32]. An explanation of this negative result could be the temperature-related increase in blood flow through the peritoneal nodules and the peritoneum due to local vasodilatation and resulting in an increase in the wash out of the cisplatin [33]. In contrast with heat, adrenaline at a concentration of 2 mg/l for 2 hour achieved a 2 to 3-fold increase pheromone in platinum content in the peritoneal tumor nodules. Such an increase boosts the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin in vitro (Figure 2). Previous rat experiments have shown us that 2 hours of IPC are required to observe the enhancing effect of adrenaline [17, 19], and our following clinical trials have taken into account this parameter [20, 21]. Experimental data show that adrenaline is more effective and better tolerated than hyperthermia in order to enhance the penetration of cisplatin. It also minimizes the selleck products systemic absorption of cisplatin. Hyperthermia was not well tolerated in this rat model, but it is in humans. Future clinical trials performing IPC with cisplatin for ovarian carcinoma should compare the effectiveness of adrenaline and hyperthermia in order to improve the effect of intraperitoneal chemotherapy.

CrossRef 34. Castell CH, Mapplebeck EG: The importance of Flavobacterium

in Fish Spoilage. Journal of Fisheries Research Board Canada 1952, 9:148–156. 35. Nematollahi A, Decostere A, Pasmans F, Haesebrouck F:Flavobacterium psychrophilum infections in salmonid fish. Journal of Fish Diseases 2003, 26:563–574.CrossRefPubMed 36. Soto E, Mauel MJ, Karsi A, Blasticidin S supplier Lawrence ML: Genetic and virulence characterization of Flavobacterium columnare from channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ). Journal of Applied Microbiology 2008, 104:1302–1310.CrossRefPubMed this website 37. Romanenko LA, Uchino M, Frolova GM, Tanaka N, Kalinovskaya NI, Latyshev N, Mikhailov VV:Sphingomonas molluscorum sp. nov., a novel marine isolate with antimicrobial activity. International MK-2206 datasheet Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 2007, 57:358–363.CrossRefPubMed 38. Brightwell G, Boerema J, Mills J, Mowat E, Pulford D: Identifying the bacterial community on the surface of Intralox belting in a meat boning room by culture-dependent and culture-independent 16 S rDNA sequence analysis. International Journal of Food Microbiology

2006, 109:47–53.CrossRefPubMed 39. Wang YP, Gu JD: Degradability of dimethyl terephthalate by Variovorax paradoxus T4 and Sphingomonas yanoikuyae DOS01 isolated from deep-ocean sediments. Ecotoxicology 2006, 15:549–557.CrossRefPubMed 40. Benediktsdottir E, Heidarsdottir KJ: Growth and lysis of the fish pathogen Moritella viscosa. Carnitine dehydrogenase Letters in Applied Microbiology 2007, 45:115–120.CrossRefPubMed 41. Stanbridge LH, Board RG: A modification of the Pseudomonas selective medium, CFC, that allows differentiation between meat pseudomonads and Enterobacteriaceae. Letters in Applied Microbiology 1994, 18:327–328.CrossRef 42. Dalgaard P, Mejlholm O, Huss HH: Conductance method for quantitative determination of Photobacterium phosphoreum in fish products. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 1996, 81:57–64. 43. Van Spreekens KJA: The suitability of Long and Hammer’s medium for the enumeration of more fastidious bacteria from fresh fishery products. Archiv fur Lebensmittelhygiene 1974, 25:213–219.

44. Reynisson E, Josefsen MH, Krause M, Hoorfar J: Evaluation of probe chemistries and platforms to improve the detection limit of real-time PCR. Journal of Microbiological Methods 2006, 66:206–216.CrossRefPubMed 45. Marteinsson VT, Hauksdottir S, Hobel CF, Kristmannsdottir H, Hreggvidsson GO, Kristjansson JK: Phylogenetic diversity analysis of subterranean hot springs in Iceland. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2001, 67:4242–4248.CrossRefPubMed Authors’ contributions ER carried out the molecular genetic studies, participated in storage trial and drafted the manuscript. HLL was in charge of experimental design of the storage trial, performed all P. phosphoreum measurements using the Malthus method and contributed significantly to the manuscript preparation. HM was in charge of the cultivation procedures during the storage trials.

The second question highlights a need for additional water conservation and a susceptibility to drought. The third question indicates a potential economic benefit in which urban water conservation could be sold for profit to nearby agriculture areas. a. Infrastructure is physically or virtually connected   b. Both cities currently use >90 % of their water LY411575 order allotment   c. Agricultural water is priced higher than residential/urban pricing   PAIRS metric question types After the three true/false questions, each section has five multiple choice questions with responses given 0–3 points each. The multiple choice questions can

be grouped into four types: quantitative, best practices, need and capability, and risk and preparation.3 Quantitative questions utilize commonly recorded metrics and create distinct thresholds for what is highly, moderately, minimally, and not sustainable by comparing values to national averages or best-practice figures. The following is an example of a quantitative question concerning the energy sector, specifically new building construction. The specific synergy being addressed is a knowledgeable local construction workforce with experience in building low-energy homes and offices. Construction of low-energy buildings not only considers reducing the energy consumption of the new building itself,

but also that of the community as

less efficient existing buildings are retrofitted. Epacadostat The impacts of many sustainable Dipeptidyl peptidase practices are not directly reflected in quantitative indicators. The social or environmental benefit may be difficult to quantify, or multiple sustainable practices may have overlapping impacts that cannot be distinguished. Indicators may be used to measure the aggregate sum of these practices. In some instances, a Selleckchem MDV3100 simple tally of the known best practices provides an indirect measure of impact. Some practices may be easier to implement, and others may have a greater impact, but ambitious sustainability goals require a holistic approach. The following is an example of a question from the PAIRS metric which tallies the number of water conservation practices applied within a community. A typical evaluation of this question with both an urban and agricultural city might go as follows. The urban area may specify building codes which mandate low-flow showers and toilets and offer incentives for low water intensity landscaping. The city would score one point for their two sustainable practices. A nearby agricultural city monitors surface water runoff and subsidizes drip irrigation installations would also score one point on this question. Treating both cities as a single entity, there would be four best practices in use, and the combined score would be three points. Applying the formula of Eq.

208; von Benda-Beckmann and von Benda-Beckmann 2007) or the effects

of large scale, government sponsored transmigration programs as that of Indonesia (Murray Li 2007, p. 259; Sodhi et al. 2009; Rist et al. 2010). Concepts of “indigenous” space then often clash with the concept of citizenship in a young nation state where anyone can settle wherever they like (Murray Li 2007, pp. 114–116). What’s more, displaced communities argue that their identities and associated rights should not be dependent on fixed associations with a certain territory, but should be portable (Murray Li 2007, p. 173). A further problem with essentialised understandings of “indigenous and local communities” is that as legal classifications and categories they GW-572016 supplier force communities to live up to the expectations of outsiders, especially of lawyers and administrators, with regards to the “authenticity” of

their “traditional lifestyles”. Such categories favour “tribal” over urban based knowledge PF-3084014 nmr and “indigenous” knowledge over tradition based forms of knowledge related to court cultures and elites, to a country’s majority population or to migrant communities (Antons 2008, p. 295). All too often, villagers and forest dwellers who attempt to improve their situation are subsequently seen as no longer matching the expectations with regards to the authenticity of their “traditional lifestyles”. Forsyth and Walker (2008, pp. 213–214) explain how in Thailand, “traditional” village life may become associated with lack of education, electricity or public health in the case of one Karen village, whereas another Karen village with road access and market integration is seen as already too “modernised”. Different from settler societies such as Australia, New Zealand, the United

States and Canada, much of traditional knowledge in Asia may also reside in fairly large majority population groups or even at the national level. Examples from traditional medicine are Indian Ayurveda, Chinese or Thai traditional medicine and Indonesian jamu, which is originally associated PI3K inhibitor with the main island of Java, but has meanwhile become a term of the national language Bahasa Indonesia referring to Indonesian traditional medicine more generally (Antons 2005; Antons and Antons-Sutanto 2009). As a consequence, many Asian governments for many years have expressed Androgen Receptor Antagonist mouse reservations about the applicability of the term “indigenous people” in Asia, a concept which in their views was more appropriately used in connection with the situation in Anglo-American settler colonies (Kingsbury 1999; Persoon 2009; Benjamin 2002, pp. 14–15; Murray Li 2000). The difference came to expression during the deliberations in the WIPO IGC about a voluntary fund established to support the participation of accredited local and indigenous communities in the IGC debates (Antons 2007, pp. 5–6).

1 and 448.1 respectively. This experiment was performed twice with similar results. Figure 4  Leptospira interrogans  endogenously expresses N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). L. interrogans was grown in EMJH medium or in a chemically defined medium containing no exogenous sialic acid (this was confirmed by HPLC, not shown). Covalently bound

Sias were released by mild acid hydrolysis and analyzed by DMB-derivatization and HPLC as described in previous EPZ004777 manufacturer figures and Materials and Methods. This experiment was performed twice with similar results. Composition and phylogenetic analysis of NulO biosynthetic gene clusters and enzymes Next we performed analysis of the composition and phylogeny of the putative NulO biosynthetic gene clusters and the enzymes they encode in L. interrogans serovars Lai (strain 56601) and Copenhageni (strain L1-130). Consistent with

the biochemical analysis of L. interrogans, genomic analysis of the NulO gene cluster reveals that the organism encodes a complete pathway for di-N-acetylated nonulosonic acid biosynthesis (see Table 1 in comparison with Figure 5). There are multiple distinct open reading frames encoding synthesis of aminotransferases, NulO synthases, and CMP-NulO synthetases (see Table 1 and Figure 5), suggesting that L. interrogans may selleck products express multiple nonulosonic acid species, a conclusion supported by our biochemical investigations (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Table 1  L. interrogans  encodes a complete pathway for legionaminic acid synthesis  Campylobacter enzymes for legionaminic acid biosynthesis[14, 17–21]  C. jejuni Pathway number (Figure 5)  L. interrogans L1-130 & 56601 NCBI accession numbers Predicted L. interrogans Pathway number (Figure 5) Predicted enzymatic Function PmtE (selleck screening library cj1329) G protein-coupled receptor kinase 1 YP_002106 1 Glc-1-P guanyltransferase     NP_711792     GlmU 2 YP_000413 2 (housekeeping)     NP_714003   N-acetyltransferase

LegB (cj 1319) 3 YP_002111 3 4,6-dehydratase     NP_711787     LegC (cj1320) 4 YP_002110 4 Aminotransferase in legionaminic acid synthesis (Figure 6A)     NP_711788         YP_002103 4, 13, or ? Aminotransferase     NP_711795     LegH (cj1298) 5 YP_002109 5 N-acetyltransferase     NP_711789     LegG (cj1328) 6 YP_002107 6 2-epimerase/NDP sugar hydrolase in legionamimic acid synthesis     NP_711791     LegI (cj1327) 7 YP_002108 7 Legionaminic acid synthase (Figure 6B)     NP_711790         YP_002104 10 Legionaminic or neuraminic acid synthase (Figures 6B & 7)     NP_711794     LegF (cj1331) 8 YP_002102 8 or 11 CMP-Legionaminic acid or neuraminic acid synthetases (Figure 6C)     NP_711796         YP_002112 8 or 11       NP_711786     Figure 5 Schematic of pseudaminic, legionamimic, and neuraminic acid biosynthetic pathways. Studies of nonulosonic acid biosynthesis at the enzymatic level have been carried out with greatest resolution using C. jejuni and H. pylori as model systems [14, 17–21, 35].

All multicellular species SC79 molecular weight studied here are closely related, and species capable of terminal differentiation form a monophyletic group. Comparisons of our study to previous findings show high similarities. Our results agree with a comparative phylogenomics approach used by Swingley et al.[36], a consensus tree of concatenated sequences presented by Blank and Sànchez-Baracaldo [47], and, are highly similar to 16S rRNA analyses conducted by Schirrmeister et al.[39]. Using

a larger taxon set [39], we previously inferred polyphyletic groupings of undifferentiated multicellular species belonging to section III. This however is not deducible from the taxonomically more limited full genome data set used in the present study. In cyanobacteria 16S rRNA sequences were highly conserved within a genome. Three species showed minor nucleotide differences. The two 16S rRNA copies of Microcystis aeruginosa CA4P ic50 differed by four ‘single nucleotide polymorphisms’ (SNPs), in Cyanothece sp. PCC 7424 one SNP was detected, and in Nostoc punctiforme one 16S copy possessed two SNPs. The differences are

visualized in a molecular distance matrix in Figure 4. 16S rRNA copies within species were identical for the majority of taxa (shown in yellow) and can be clearly distinguished from gene copies belonging to different species. Temsirolimus nmr Furthermore, using the whole dataset we calculated mean distances within strains (d W ) and between strains (d B ). Results are presented in Table 2. Significance of differences in sequence distances found within and between cyanobacterial strains were estimated using bootstrap re-sampling of the original data set. Distributions

of the resulting mean distances are displayed in Additional files 4 and 5. For each distribution, an see more overall mean distance was calculated ( ). Mean distance of 16S rRNA sequences within species (d W =0.0001) is significantly smaller than between species (d B =0.14; Table 2). 95% confidence intervals of distributions obtained by re-samplings do not overlap. Although previous studies have claimed that variation within 16S rRNA sequences might affect reliability of this gene as a taxonomic marker [10, 34], this was not found for genera used in this study. Rather, the extreme sequence conservation of 16S rRNA gene copies from the same species supports 16S rRNA as a reliable genetic marker for the taxa analyzed here. Figure 4 Distance matrix of cyanobacterial 16S rRNA sequences. Distance matrix between 16S rRNA genes estimated based on K80 substitution model. 16S rRNA gene copy numbers range from one to four per cyanobacterial genomes studied. White lines separate sequence copies of different species. 16S rRNA sequences are highly conserved within species.

aeruginosa (Figure 3), but little previous work addressed its regulation. The transcriptome subset varying between biofilm and planktonic cultures of P. aeruginosa GSK2245840 clinical trial PAO1 has been reported [29]: fdx1 transcription was increased ca. 3 times in biofilms as compared to free living bacteria. However, such variations were not confirmed in another similar study [30]. Considering other members of the AlvinFdx family, one of the two fdx

genes in Campylobacter jejuni (sequence [14] of Figure 1A) was found to be iron-regulated and involved in the Rabusertib mouse aerobic survival of cells in the stationary phase [31]. The sequence of another Fdx of this bacterium (sequence [7] of Figure 1A) is more similar to the Fdx consensus. We could not demonstrate iron regulation for the single fdx gene of P. aeruginosa or E. coli (not shown), in line with previous results obtained

with H. pylori [32] and P. aeruginosa [33]. H. pylori strains are of particular interest since their only annotated ferredoxin gene is of the type discussed here. The encoded protein has been associated with metronidazole resistance, at least for some strains Y-27632 price [34, 35], including because it is suspected to donate electrons to a nitroreductase (the product of the frxA gene) that is required to activate the drug. The observation that the gene could be deleted in some, but not all, H. pylori strains [35] did not help assigning a function to Fdx. In particular, the actual involvement of Fdx as low potential electron shuttle between oxidoreductases in H. pylori as suggested [34] remains to be clearly delineated since Fdx Ceramide glucosyltransferase proteins have been shown to be poor electron donors/acceptors in coupled reactions using such enzymes [36, 37]. Indeed, flavodoxin has been assigned this role in H. pylori and C. jejuni [37]. Furthermore, the induced high-level expression of frxA resulting from the deletion of fdx in some H. pylori strains suggested a repressor function for fdx and additional important, but undefined, roles [35]. The genome context around the fdx genes is not conserved in different bacteria, and evidence for transcription

as part of an operon is lacking, with the exception of clusters of genes involved in the anaerobic degradation of aromatic compounds [19–21]. In P. aeruginosa several, often putative, oxidoreductases can be identified in the analysis of the genome, and many low-potential electron transfer molecules coexist. P. aeruginosa fdx1 is transcribed as a short messenger in a constitutive-like manner, and our attempts at deleting fdx1 indicated that it belongs to the minority of essential genes (estimated around 10% [38]) in this bacterium. This conclusion agrees with the absence of P. aeruginosa transposon mutants for PA0362, both in PAO1 http://​pseudomutant.​pseudomonas.​com/​index.​html and PA14 http://​pga.​mgh.​harvard.​edu/​Parabiosys/​projects/​host-pathogen_​interactions/​library_​construction.​php libraries.

YH performed click here the SERS measurements. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have shown promising potential as an alternative to Si thin-film solar cells because of low fabrication cost and relatively high efficiency [1, 2]. Efficient utilization of sunlight is greatly

important in photovoltaic systems for high efficiency. Therefore, there have been many studies on the scattering layer to fully utilize incident light inside solar cells by using different morphologies and sizes of scatterers in TiO2-based DSSCs [3–10]. However, few studies for the scattering layer exist in ZnO-based DSSCs [11–13], despite the advantages of

ZnO such as higher carrier mobility and fabrication easiness for various nanostructures [14, 15]. Among various nanostructures, hundred-nanometer-sized PU-H71 nanoporous spheres provide both effective light scattering and large surface area [16]. X. Tao’s group and W. Que’s group have reported on the scattering layer consisting of nanoporous spheres [17, 18]. While they have shown improvements on the scattering effect, large voids between spheres leave the possibility of providing more available surface area where dye can be attached, and better charge transport by improved percolation of large-sized spheres should be achieved. In this paper, we report the improvements of scattering layers using a mixture of nanoparticles and nanoporous spheres. VX-680 Nanoporous spheres act as effective light scatterers with the large surface area, and nanoparticles favor both efficient charge transport and an additional

surface area. Methods The ZnO nanoporous spheres were synthesized by using zinc acetate dihydrate (0.01 M, Zn(CH3COO)2 · 2H2O, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and diethylene glycol ((HOCH2CH2)2O, Sigma-Aldrich) in an oil bath at 160°C for 6 h [16]. After washing with ethanol, the as-synthesized ZnO nanoporous spheres check (NS) and ZnO nanoparticle (NP) (721085, Sigma-Aldrich) were mixed to the weight ratios of NP to NS of 10:0, 7:3, 5:5, 3:7, and 0:10. To fabricate bilayer-structured electrodes, a paste consisting of only ZnO nanoparticles (NP/NS = 10:0) was first spread on a fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate (FTO, TEC 8, Pilkington, St. Helens, UK) covered with a dense TiO2 blocking layer by sputtering. After solvent evaporation, the mixed pastes with various ratios of NS and NP were spread on top of the nanoparticle film by a doctor blade method. The active area was 0.28 cm2, and the as-deposited films were subsequently annealed at 350°C for 1 h. The films were sensitized with 0.5 mM of N719 dye (RuL2(NCS)2:2TBA, L = 2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-dicarboxylic acid, TBA = tetrabutylammonium, Solaronix, Aubonne, Switzerland) for 30 min at RT.

Yet another approach to whole-genome phylogenetics is the comparison of gene content. This technique works by predicting orthologues in pairs of organisms and then assigning a “”distance”" between each

pair based on the putative number of shared genes. This technique was originally proposed by Snel et al. [13] and was subsequently revisited with RG7112 order larger groups of organisms [14, 15]. However, horizontal gene transfer is a major complicating factor in using these methods to infer evolutionary relationships in prokaryotes [16]. Recently, a new subfield called pan-genomics AZD1390 nmr has become established as a framework for exploring the genomic relatedness of bacterial groups. Unlike the studies cited in the previous paragraph, pan-genomics does not involve inferring phylogeny from genome content; rather, it encompasses broad-based characterizations of gene- or protein-content relationships in a given group of organisms. Pan-genomics was introduced by Tettelin et al. [17], who sequenced several strains of the bacterium Streptococcus agalactiae and then analyzed Cilengitide the genomic diversity of those isolates in terms of a “”core genome”" (genes present in all isolates) and a “”dispensable genome”" (genes not present in all isolates). Two more examples of pan-genomic analyses

are those done for Vibrio [18] and for Escherichia coli [19]. Review articles summarizing concepts and developments in microbial pan-genomics are also available [20, 21]. Despite the increasing interest in pan-genomics, we do not know of a study providing a general characterization and comparison of gene/protein content relationships in many different bacterial groups. To fill this gap, this study reports the results of several different analyses that compare the protein content of different bacteria. When beginning this study, we were faced with the choice of comparing either gene content or protein content. Both have been examined in previous work; for example, Tettelin et al. [17] studied both gene sets and predicted protein sets, whereas Rasko et al. [19] used

predicted proteins exclusively. For two reasons, we chose to explore protein content rather than gene content. First, since protein content is more directly related to function Dapagliflozin and physiology than gene content, the use of protein content was more appropriate for relating pan-genomic properties to factors like habitats, environmental niches, and selective pressures. Second, since we perform comparisons across diverse genera, the lower level of variability in protein sequences compared to gene sequences (due to the degeneracy of the genetic code) may provide an advantage when using BLAST to compare the more divergent organisms. The popularity of tools such as tblastx [22, 23] also speaks to the desirability of comparing gene sequences via the corresponding proteins.